INTRODUCTIONCoconut (Cocos nucifera L.) palm is a monocotyledonbelonging to Arecaceae or Palmae family. Coconutis among the ten most useful trees in the world andis referred to as ‘tree of life’, ‘tree of heaven’, ‘tree ofabundance’ due to its multi-utilisation in nutrition,medicine, cosmetics, etc. [1]. Coconut palm can beprocessed into coconut water, coconut milk, coconutsugar, coconut oil, and coconut meat. Coconut consists ofouter fibrous coat, or husk known as exocarp, and innerhard protective endocarp, or shell. A white albuminouspart is endosperm, or coconut meat, and inner cavity isfilled with clear fluid called coconut water (Fig 1).There are two main varieties of coconut, i.e. tall anddwarf ones, depending on fruiting time. The tall varietiesReview Article DOI: http://doi.org/10.21603/2308-4057-2019-2-419-427Open Access Available online at http:jfrm.ruCoconut meal: Nutraceutical importanceand food industry applicationKarandeep Kaur1, Navnidhi Chhikara2 , Poorva Sharma1, M.K. Garg3, Anil Panghal3,*1 Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, India2 Department of Food Technology, Guru Jambheshwar University of Science and Technology, Hisar, India3 Department of Processing and Food Engineering, AICRP-PHET, Chaudhary Charan Singh HaryanaAgricultural University, Hisar, India* e-mail: anilpanghal@gmail.comReceived May 08, 2019; Accepted in revised form September 18, 2019; Published October 21, 2019Abstract: In tropical regions coconut is the tree of great significance: it provides millions of people with food, employment, andbusiness opportunities. The fruit is referred to as ‘miracle fruit’ due to its inherent rich profile of macro- and micro-nutrients forhuman nutrition and health. Different products, such as coconut water, milk, raw kernels, oil and desiccated coconut are commerciallyprocessed. Coconut flour is a byproduct of coconut milk and oil industry which is made from coconut meal leftover after processing.Being a rich source of dietary fibre and protein, it has found numerous applications in different functional foods. Coconut flour canbe successfully incorporated into various food products, such as bakery, extruded products, snacks, and sweets. It has antidiabeticand anticancer effects, prevents cardiovascular diseases, and improves immune function. Coconut flour is also gluten-free and itsnutritional composition is quite comparable to that of wheat flour. Gluten-free food products enriched with coconut flour are a healthyand viable option for the people with celiac disease. In this paper, we summarised the present use of coconut flour. There is anapparent need to convert the food processing byproducts into functional ingredients in order to implement their environment-friendlyand efficient utilisation.Statement of Novelty: The review discusses the recent research of coconut meal valorisation with the focus on technologies allowingthe promotion of coconut meal and its commercial availability.Keywords: Coconut flour, dietary fibres, celiac disease, functional food, anticancer, antidiabetic, pasta, bakeryPlease cite this article in press as: Kaur K, Chhikara N, Sharma P, Garg MK, Panghal A. Coconut meal: Nutraceutical importance andfood industry application. Foods and Raw Materials. 2019;7(2):419–427. DOI: http://doi.org/10.21603/2308-4057-2019-2-419-427.Copyright © 2019, Kaur et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 InternationalLicense (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), allowing third parties to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format and to remix,transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially, provided the original work is properly cited and states its license.Foods and Raw Materials, 2019, vol. 7, no. 2E-ISSN 2310-9599ISSN 2308-4057Figure 1 Internal view of Coconut [2]420Kaur K. et al. Foods and Raw Materials, 2019, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 419–427grow slowly, and their fruiting occurs after 6–10 years ofplantation. The dwarf varieties grow faster, and fruitingoccurs within 4–5 years of plantation [3]. Indonesia,Philippine and India are the largest coconut producersin the world, with the annual production of 61, 18 and15.86 million tons, respectively [4]. In India, Kerala’scoconut production is 48.79%, followed by Karnataka(18.90%), Tamil Nadu (17.70%), and Andhra Pradesh(5.50%), which together accounts for 91% of the totalproduction in the country [5].Virgin coconut oil (VCO) is the main product fromthe coconut industry of great economic importance.VCO is extracted from the fresh, mature coconut kernelmechanically with or without the use of heat. Refining,bleaching or deodorising is avoided in VCO extractionto retain all its natural properties. The white residue,or meal, left after the extraction of VCO is calledVirgin Coconut Meal (VCM). It can be milled to obtainflour rich in dietary fibre and considered as a suitableingredient in the formulation of functional foods.Production of coconut flour has been increased recentlydue to its functional properties such as prevention ofdiseases like diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, andcolon cancer. Waste generated in the fruit, vegetable andnut industry is full of valuable nutrients and needs tobe reused in value added food products thus providingadditional economic benefits [6, 7].RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONProcessing of coconut flour. De-oiled cakes ofcoconut and flour are a good source of dietary fibres.Being a rich source of dietary fibre and protein, it hasfound numerous applications in different functionalfoods. Non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) or dietary fibreare protective against gastrointestinal cancer, includingesophageal one [8].There are two methods for VCO extraction: dry andwet ones. In dry processing the fresh mature coconutsare dehusked and deshelled. After the removal ofbrown coat, the coconuts are grated and dried at 65–70°C in tray or vacuum drier. The dried coconuts arethen subjected to cold press expeller to extract coconutoil. The white low fat residue/meal obtained is grindedto make coconut flour. In wet processing, the coconutmilk is extracted from the fresh kernel which is thenfermented naturally (at 35–40°C for 16–24 h) to obtainVCO from coconut curd by phase separation. The mealis milled into coconut flour [9]. The solvent extractionmethod is generally avoided because of health hazardsand low quality meal [10]. Normally, the meal or theresidue obtained after the extraction of coconut oil isused as cattle and poultry feed. Nevertheless, coconutmeal has nutraceutical properties, which make it usefulfor human consumption, and should be incorporatedin various food products [11]. The meal containscarbohydrates, protein and dietary fibre, which can alsobe utilised for food enrichment. In addition, anotheradvantage of the meal is its low cost.During food production and processing, hygieneand sanitation are prerequisites to avoid any hazards toenter in food supply chain [12]. The main concern infood utilisation is that the unhygienic processing makescopra press cake unsuitable for consumption by humans.However, in order to overcome this problem, coconutmeal obtained from virgin coconut oil extraction canbe processed into coconut flour [13]. Coconut flourcan be marketed to the bakery, snacks, and noodlesmanufacturers [14]. There is an apparent need toconvert the food processing by-products into functionalingredients in order to implement environment-friendlyand efficient utilisation of these by-products.Nutritional composition of coconut flour.Composition of coconut flour mainly depends uponthe method employed for the extraction of coconut oil.However, varieties have slight influence on oil content ofcoconut and, thus, on flour. According to [15], coconutflour is quite superior to wheat flour in terms of protein,fibre, mineral, and lipid profile (Table 1).Khan et al. investigated coconut flour compositionmade from coconut meal obtained by dry processingmethod [16]. The reported composition was: moisture,6.7%; ash, 1.55%; protein, 14.3%; fat, 54.0%; fibre,20.50%; and carbohydrates, 23.40%. Igbabul et al.investigated the composition of coconut flour obtainedfrom fermented coconut slices which were deoiled bydry processing method [17]. Thus, obtained coconutflour possesses moisture of 5.27%; ash, 2.76%; protein,12.31%; fat, 0.48%; fibre, 11.81%; and carbohydrates,67.37%. Gunathilake et al. investigated the dryprocessed coconut flour composition as: moisture,9.76%; ash, 0.51%; protein, 9.90%; fat, 0.87%; fibre,0.50%; and carbohydrates, 78.46% [18]. Coconut flourproduced by dry processing is rich in protein, whileflour from wet processing is predominantly rich in fibrecontent.Health benefits of coconut flour. Functional food isany food that imparts a positive effect on people’s healthand provides basic nutrition. Coconut milk residueand virgin coconut oil meal are rich sources of dietaryfibre [19]. Dietary fibre is the best ingredient to be usedin the development of functional foods, due to its healthpromoting effects, such as controlling cholesterol andblood sugar levels, increasing the fecal bulk volume,proliferation of gut microflora, decreasing intestinalTable 1 Comparative proximate composition of wheat flourand coconut flourComponent Wheat flour, % Coconut flour, %Moisture 9.76 4.20Ash 0.51 5.96Protein 9.90 21.65Fibre 0.50 10.45Fat 0.87 8.42Carbohydrates 78.46 59.77421Kaur K. et al. Foods and Raw Materials, 2019, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 419–427transit time, trapping carcinogenic agents, etc. Fibre canbe supplemented using coconut flour to develop healthyfoods low in calories and fats. Coconut flour is a potentfunctional ingredient used in food products with widehealth benefits (Table 2).Antidiabetic effect. Glycemic index (GI) is atherapeutic principle for diabetes mellitus. GI can beestimated by determining the increase in blood glucoseconcentration after the intake of a test meal for a specificperiod of time and compared to equivalent control mealconsisting of bread or glucose. Low glycemic indexfood reduces the postprandial blood glucose levels. Theglycemic index of coconut flour supplemented foodsdecreases with increase in the amount of coconut flourdue to its high fibre content. This forms a scientific basisfor its utilisation as a functional food for the dietarycontrol and management of diabetes mellitus [20].Not only the coconut dietary fibre but also thecoconut kernel proteins have an antidiabetic effect.Coconut is rich in L-arginine which contributes toglucose homeostasis through nitric oxide synthasepathway leading to pancreatic beta cell regeneration [21].It regulates blood glucose levels and improves insulinsensitivity in diabetic and non-diabetic individuals [22].Cardiovascular diseases prevention. An increasein fibre intake is beneficial for heart health as itlowers blood pressure and serum cholesterol levelsthus reducing the risk of stroke and hypertension.Coconut fire was shown to lower the serum cholesterol,triglycerides and LDL cholesterol levels thus reducingthe risk of coronary heart diseases. After fat digestion,bile acids are reabsorbed in the body and then convertedinto cholesterol. Coconut fibres prevent the re-absorptionof bile acids into enterohepatic circulation and bile acidare excreted through feces along with fibre. This justifiesthe need for the development of coconut flour foodproducts as a functional food [23].The short chain fatty acids (butyrate, acetate andpropionate) produced by the fermentation of dietary fibresin large intestine inhibits the synthesis of cholesterol inthe liver. Propionate is known to inhibit HMG (3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl) CoA synthase, a limiting enzyme forthe synthesis of cholesterol from acetyl- CoA in the liver.This fermentation metabolite decreases the cholesterolsynthesis by the rate of 45% [24].Coconut fats increase the level of high densitylipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, a good cholesterollowering the risk of coronary heart disease. Althoughthe polyphenol content in coconut is high, it maintainsnormal levels of lipids in tissues by trapping the reactiveoxygen species in plasma and interstitial fluid of thearterial wall resulting in the inhibition of LDL oxidation,reversal of cholesterol transport and reduction in theintestinal absorption of cholesterol [25].Coconut proteins also exhibit hypolipidemiceffect due to the high content of L-arginine (24.5%),a precursor of nitric oxide [26]. Nitric oxide isan endogenous vasodilator and also prevents theaggregation and adhesion of platelets and wasidentified as an endothelium derived relaxing factor(EDRF). The consumption of dietary arginine checkshypercholesterolemia by correcting the reducedconcentrations of EDRF [27]. Consumption of coconutproducts, such as desiccated coconut and coconut flour,can therefore help improve the lipid profiles.Anticancer effect. Colorective cancer is the cancerof digestive tract, which depends on genetic factors (overexpression of enzyme cyclo-oxygenase-2), oxidativestress and diet. Antioxidants are free radical scavengersand are considered as the potent chemo-preventivecomponents. Coconut flour contains high contentof phenols and flavonoids, which have antioxidantproperties (Table 1).The study reported that coconut flour extractsaffect the integrity of the Caco-2 cancer cells of thecolon due to release of lactate dehydrogenase as foundin the cytotoxicity assays. The extracts also increasethe activity of detoxifying enzyme catalase whichis responsible for the neutralisation of hydrogenperoxide [28]. Butyrate produced during the intestinalfermentation of fibres has anti-inflammatory andanticarcinogenic properties [29]. It enhances cellTable 2 Health benefits of coconut flourComponent Health benefit Biological action ReferenceFiber Antidiabetic effect Reduces postprandial glucose levels [20]Cardiovascular diseasepreventionLowers the serum cholesterol, triglycerides, and LDL cholesterol levels [23]Prebiotic and immunemodulatorOligosaccharides produced by enzymatic hydrolysis of polysaccharidespresent in coconut meal are a potent prebiotic substance for humans[33]Weight control Gives bulkiness without supplying fats, resulting in consumption of less foodand low calories[36]Fat Cardiovascular diseasespreventionCoconut fats elevate the levels of high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol,a good cholesterol known to lower the risk of coronary heart disease[25]Protein Hypolipidemic effect Arginine checks hypercholesterolemia by correcting the reducedconcentrations of EDRF[26]Phenols andflavonoidsAnticancer effect Coconut flour extracts affect the integrity of the Caco-2 cancer cells dueto release of lactate dehydrogenase as found in the cytotoxicity assays[28]422Kaur K. et al. Foods and Raw Materials, 2019, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 419–427differentiation which prevents tumor formation incolon. Excess bile acids induces oxidative stress by theproduction of reactive oxygen species which causesrepeated DNA damage leading to mutations andcarcinogenesis in the gastrointestinal tract [30]. Thesecondary bile acids contribute to the risk of colorectalcancer. Dietary fibre binds with the bile acids andfacilitates their effective fecal excretion [31].Bioactive peptides also possess antioxidantproperties and other health benefits. The two peptidesfrom the coconut cake protein isolates, Pro-Gln-Phe-Tyr-Trp and Arg-Pro-Glu-Ile-Val, are the peptidesexhibiting free radical scavenging activities with4.28 and 7.65 μg/mL IC50 value respectively (IC50 isthe concentration of the peptide needed to scavenge50 percent of the radical activity) [32].Prebiotic and immune modulator. Dietaryfibres act as prebiotics and are essential for intestinalmicroflora. Oligosaccharides produced by enzymatichydrolysis of polysaccharides present in coconut mealare a potent prebiotic substance for humans [33].Prebiotics are the non-digestible oligosaccharidesfavouring the growth of Bifidobacteria, Lactobacilliand other microorganisms responsible for the intestinalimmune responses [34]. These bacteria carry out thefermentation of the prebiotic oligosaccharides andproduce short chain fatty acids. ß-1,4-Mannobiose is adisaccharide obtained from coconut flour which exhibitsimmune modulating and prebiotic effect. It increases theproduction of antibody IgA which prevents the growthof pathogenic bacteria by increasing the phagocyticactivity. The branched structure of ß-1,4-Mannobioseshows similarity with the bacterial cell wall componentsand thus acts as a toll-like receptor agonist. Toll-likereceptors activate the signaling pathways that areresponsible for the host defense mechanisms [35].Weight control. Dietary fibre is an important tool forobesity control by the nutrition and diet professionals.Consumption of dietary fibre is known to showsignificant changes in the gut hormones, glycemic index,gastric emptying, and satiation indices. As coconutconsists of fibre, it absorbs water and provides a feelingof fullness. It gives bulkiness without supplying fats,resulting in consumption of less food and low caloriesand thus regulating weight. Hypoenergetic diet, whensupplemented with coconut flour, lowers glucose andcholesterol levels thus managing obesity [36].Gluten free flour. Celiac disease is geneticallyinherited chronic disease characterised by an immuneresponse on the consumption of gluten. This autoimmune response causes villi damage of the smallintestine and thus hampers the absorption of nutrientsinto the body leading to gastrointestinal distressand malnutrition [37]. At present, the only treatmentfor gluten intolerance is strict avoidance of glutencontaining foods made up of wheat, barley, and rye. Themain constraint in gluten free diets is that these are quitepoor in dietary fibres and carbohydrates.On the contrary, coconut flour contains abundantamount of fibres (Table 1). Gluten free foods can beenriched with natural non-cereal gluten free fibresources such as vegetables, fruits, nuts, legumes, orseed. Coconut flour is marketed as a gluten free productfor flour replacement and as an additive to cerealproducts (Table 3). Thus, gluten free food productsenriched with coconut flour are a healthy and viableoption for the people with celiac disease.Table 3 Coconut flour food productsFood product Ingredients used ReferencesBread Refined wheat flour, coconut flour (10–30% substitution with refined wheat flour) [18]Plain cake Wheat flour, coconut flour (10–30% substitution with wheat flour), egg, sugar, powder milk,baking powder and soybean oil[41]Cookies Wheat flour, coconut flour fiber concentrate (10% and 20% substitution with wheat flour),sugar, fat, corn flour, salt, ammonium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate and water[19]Extruded ready-to-eat(RTE) snacksVCM flour (5–20% substitution with rice flour), rice flour, sugar and cardamom powder [16]Cold extruded andbaked RTE snacksAfrican breadfruit flour, cashew nut flour, defatted coconut flour (in the ratio of 8:5:2respectively), sugar, water, salt, flavourings and wheat flour[46]Gluten free cookies Rice flour, coconut flour (30% and 50% substitution with rice flour), maple syrup, butter, eggpowder, ammonium bicarbonate and sodium bicarbonate[44]RTE Breakfast cereals Maize flour, African yam bean seeds flour, coconut flour (10–50% incorporation in maize andAfrican yam bean flour blends), sorghum malt extract, sugar, salt and water[50]Noodles Wheat flour, coconut flour (10–30% level incorporation in wheat flour), water and salt [15]Biscuits Refined wheat flour, virgin coconut meal (5–25% replacement with refined wheat flour),hydrogenated fat, sugar, baking powder and water.[43]Breakfast cereal Composite flour ( rice flour and soybean flour in the ratio of 50:50), coconut flour (5–20%replacement with composite flour)[51]Gluten free cookies Rice cream, coconut flour, potato starch, sugar, butter, eggs, xanthum gum, salt, sodiumcarbonate, lemon juice, honey essence and chocolate chips[48]Sweet meat (ladoo) VCM, desiccated coconut powder, whole wheat flour, sugar, cashew nut and hydrogenated fat [53]423Kaur K. et al. Foods and Raw Materials, 2019, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 419–427Antinutrients. Anti-nutrients are the substanceswhich either inhibit the absorption of nutrients or hinderin their further metabolic pathways. Major substratecereals, legumes and millets have certain antinutrients,such as phytic acid, lathyrogens, saponins, lectins,haemagglutinins, alpha amylase inhibitors, etc. Theylower the bioavailability of minerals and inhibit the proteindigestion. Coconut flour can be considered as a goodsubstitute for gluten free products and other processed dueto the absence of an antinutritional factor [38].Coconut flour. Coconut flour is successfullyincorporated into bakery, extruded products andtraditional sweets.Bakery products. Cereal based cookies, bread,crackers (an integral part of human diet) accountsmainly for energy source in human nutrition thereforethey are good vehicles for supplementation of nutrients[39]. Gunathilake et al. used coconut flour in differentproportions (10, 20, and 30%) for refined wheat flourbread to enhance proteins, amino acid profile anddietary fibres [18]. Cereal proteins are not a valuablesource of lysine [40]. The mixing behavior of thewheat flour and coconut flour blends was analysed.It was found that water absorption decreased whiledough development time, arrival time, and stabilityincreased with 20% substitution. The study concludedthat acceptable quality of bread can be made by 20%substitution of the wheat flour with coconut flour.Hossain et al. made nutritionally rich cake byincorporating coconut flour in wheat flour [41].Substitution of wheat flour with 20% coconut flour forthe preparation of plain cake resulted in increase inmoisture by 0.75%, protein by 0.58%, fat by13.84%, ashby 0.91%, crude fibre by 0.9%, while the carbohydratecontent decreased by 16.16%. The moisture contentincreased due to the presence of water holding matrixi.e. dietary fibres (cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin, etc.),which resulted in an enhancement of cake volume.Yalegama and Chavan made fibre supplementedcookies with coconut flour fibre extracts [13]. Fats,proteins and sugars were removed from coconut flourand the purified fiber was incorporated into cookies.10% coconut fibre substituted cookies showed goodoverall acceptability. The coconut flour was foundto contain 13.4 g/100g fat, 9.3 g/100g crude fibre,3.7 g/100g moisture, and 18.8 g/100g total sugars. Cellwall polysaccharide concentrate was prepared fromthe coconut flour with free flowing properties and wasused in the preparation of cookies. The cookies showeda slight increase in moisture content by 1% and ashcontent by 0.19%. The protein content decreased by 0.1%and carbohydrate increased by 3.2%. The protein contentdecreased and carbohydrate increased due to additionof extra sugar and fat in the cookies. The sensoryproperties decreased with increasing level of substitutionwith coconut fibre. High fibre cookies can be made bysupplementation with coconut fibre.Sivakami and Sarojini formulated biscuits usingdefatted coconut flour, rice flakes, and defatted soyaflour [42]. The biscuits contained lower amount of fibre(2 g) which might be due to highly processed flours usedfor the preparation of biscuits. The carbohydrate contentof biscuits was found to be in the range of 54–57 g. Thebiscuits provided 464 kcal of energy per 100 g.Srivastava et al. prepared virgin coconut meal(VCM) incorporated refined wheat flour biscuits [43].Sample investigations showed that incorporation of15% VCM was most suitable for the acceptable sensoryqualities of biscuits. Fibre and protein content wascomparatively high as compared to the 100% wheatflour biscuits. Addition of VCM increased the hardnessof the dough and decreased the adhesiveness. Additionof VCM also resulted in an increase of moisture by1.14% (due to high water absorption capacity), fat by14.55%, protein by 1.41%, ash content by 0.47%, andfibre by 3.40%. The 5–25% VCM resulted in decrease inpalmitic and oleic acids, while lauric, myristic, caprylicand capric acids increased. Potassium content increasedby 382.82 mg/100 g, calcium by 14.8 mg/100 g, ironby 4.94 mg/100 g, sodium by 32.98 mg/100 g, and zincby 0.51 mg/100 g. The hardness of dough increased by2.41 N on 10% replacement with VCM. Coconut mealflour is used owing to its high energy density, high foodgrade proteins, functional properties and other healthbenefits. The study found that de-oiled coconut mealflour biscuits were rich in all nutrients and can be usedfor the production of supplementary protein foods.Paucean et al. developed gluten-free cookies fromrice and coconut flour blends with pleasant flavour andtaste [44]. The nutritional properties of coconut flourmake it suitable for the value addition of the bakedfoods. 50% substitution of coconut flour with rice flourwas most acceptable in sensory qualities and showedincrease in moisture by 6.65%, total fat by 2.15%,proteins by 2.55% and ash by 0.38%.Snacks. Modern lifestyle improved living standard,and changing eating habits have opened a huge marketof snacks [45]. Khan et al. made virgin coconut meal(VCM) incorporated rice based extruded ready-to-eatsnacks [16]. The extrusion temperature was maintainedfrom 40 to 185°C for 9 zones with screw speed of150 rpm. Incorporation of VCM in the amount of 10%in rice snacks was most acceptable. It showed a decreasein expansion ratio by 0.233, mass flow rate by 16 g/minwhile increase in bulk density by 0.36 g/ml, waterholding capacity by 1.83 g/g, fibre content by 0.21%, andprotein by 0.77%.Okafor and Ugwu made cold extruded and baked RTEsnacks from blends of breadfruit (Treculia Africana L.),cashewnut (Anacardium occidentale L.) and coconutmeal [46]. Coconut flour addition showed an increase infibre by 0.47%, fat by 1.16%, bulk density by 0.06%, provitamin by 2.6 mg/100g, vitamin B2 by 0.046mg/100g,vitamin B3 by 0.116 mg/100g while decrease in moisture424Kaur K. et al. Foods and Raw Materials, 2019, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 419–427by 1.75%, protein by 1.32%, carbohydrates by 3.87%,porosity by 0.04% and lateral expansion by 2.33%. Thefibre content of the extruded snacks increased with theaddition of defatted coconut flour. As was proved, fibrerich foods control the blood glucose levels in diabeticpeople; therefore the snacks with coconut flour as one ofthe ingredients have potential application as diabetic food.Mihiranie et al. made snack crackers with coconutflour to improve the dietary fiber, protein and mineralcontent [47]. Addition of coconut flour decreases thethickness and puffiness of the crackers. 20% of thedefatted coconut flour can be successfully added tothe wheat flour without compromising the sensoryproperties. It was concluded that defatted coconut flouris a potent ingredient for the formulation of healthy andlow cost snack crackers.Queiroz et al. prepared potato starch gluten freecookies with 10% incorporation of coconut flour [48].This amount of coconut flour resulted in an increasein moisture by 10.5%, ash by 0.12%, protein by 1.08%,lipid by 3.46%, as well as in a decrease in carbohydratesby 15.19% and energy value by 25.1 kcal/g. Theenrichment of the cookies with coconut flour improvedits nutritional quality and provided superior physicaland physicochemical properties to the product. The lipidand protein content was increased but the carbohydratecontent was decreased.Breakfast cereal. Ready-to-eat breakfast cereals aregaining popularity due to convenience and improvednutritional value [49]. Okafor and Usman prepared RTEbreakfast cereals from blends of maize, African yambean, defatted coconut cake and sorghum malt extract[50]. It was concluded that addition of defatted coconutflour increased the pH and water absorbing capacityof the formulation but decreased the bulk density, oilabsorbing capacity and viscosity of the breakfast cereal.Increased levels of coconut flour addition showed moreprotein digestion. 50% substitution of coconut flourresulted in an increase in water absorbing capacityby 8.07%, in vitro protein digestibility by 15.9% andin a decrease in oil absorption capacity by 0.45%,foam capacity by 1.01%, viscosity by 11.35%, andemulsification capacity by 1.64%.Ojali et al. made breakfast cereals by blending rice,soybean, and defatted coconut flour blends [51]. It wasfound that the protein and crude fibre content increasedwith the addition of soybean and defatted coconut flour,respectively, while the carbohydrate content decreased.Thus, the nutritional quality of the breakfast cerealscan be enhanced by addition of soybean and defattedcoconut flour. 20% coconut flour composition resultedin an increase in ash by 1%, crude fibre by 0.54%,carbohydrate by 1.76%, crude fat by 0.7% and a decreasein crude protein by 6.72%, tannin content by 0.27%, andoxalate content by 1%.Pasta. Pasta is the primary convenience foodavailable in different shapes and size like spaghetti,noodles, vermicelli, etc., which are consumed worldwide[52]. The nutritional and functional characteristicsof noodles can be increased by their fortification withproteins and fibres. Noodle fortification can be aneffective public health intervention. Gunathilake andAbeyrathne developed coconut flour incorporated wheatflour noodles to supplement wheat flour noodles withfibre and protein [15]. Wheat flour noodles were usedas a medium for the incorporation of fibre and proteinbecause in Asia 40% of the wheat flour is used formaking noodles. The noodles made by addition of 20%coconut flour were not much different from 100% wheatflour noodles in sensory properties. 20% substitutionshowed more stable dough due to stabilisation of glutenby coconut proteins and thus better textural properties.Sweets. Coconut burfi enjoys great popularity,especially in Southern India. It is generally made fromdesiccated coconut. Coconut ladoo is also a popularIndian sweet rich in fibre and protein. It generallycontains sugar, wheat flour, hydrogenated fat, dry fruitsand flavouring substances in desiccated coconut powder[11]. Srivastava et al. made Indian traditional Sweetmeat (ladoo) from VCM and analysed the shelf life ofthe product under different conditions at the ambienttemperatures of 15–35°C [11]. The main ingredients usedin the formulation were VCM, sugar, and water.The study found that the samples with potassiumsorbate, an antimycotic agent, showed a shelf life of 4months as compared to the samples without it, whoseshelf life was only three weeks due to mold growthand fermenting odour. The loss of moisture from thesamples and sorbic acid degradation rates were higher inpolypropylene packaging as compared to the metalisedpolyester packaging.Normally, coconut ladoo is made from desiccatedcoconut and sold by the small scale confectionerswithout proper protective packaging material. Thestudy found that during storage the samples packagedin polypropylene turned hard and brittle because of themoisture loss, while the samples packaged in metalisedpolyester remained soft longer.Awasthi made gluten-free coconut flour ladoo andcoconut flour burfi [53]. Coconut flour is a useful productfor gluten-allergic people because it is gluten-free. It canbe used as a wheat flour substitute for preparing variousdishes. Fat and protein contents in ladoo were 33.8% and2.1%, respectively, while those in burfi were 46.6% and2.91%. Table 3 shows coconut flour incorporated to foodproducts.CONCLUSIONCoconut meal obtained from extraction of virgincoconut oil can be used in the form of coconut flour asit is nutritious and a good source of proteins, mineralsand dietary fibre. Coconut flour made from coconut mealpromotes health and prevents diseases such as diabetes,obesity, colon cancer, and cardiovascular diseases.The flour can be used in the preparation of gluten-freeproducts for individuals with celiac disease.Utilisation of coconut meal in the form of coconutflour aims at incorporation of dietary fibres and proteins425Kaur K. et al. Foods and Raw Materials, 2019, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 419–427into the gluten free food. In India, the meal obtained afterthe extraction of coconut oil is usually discarded or usedas animal feed. If hygienically processed, the meal canbe used to make flour, which can be utilised for makinga variety of food products. Agro-industrial waste can beused in an efficient way for human consumption.Extruded products such as pasta, noodles, and readyto-eat snacks can also be made using coconut flour.Coconut flour is an underutilised product of coconutindustry and its present use is very limited. There isimmense need of commercial processing techniques toenhance utilisation of coconut flour from coconut meal.Coconut flour extruded products will be convenienceproducts with nutritional and health benefits. Coconutflour is a high protein, fibre-rich and gluten-freefunctional food product.CONFLICT OF INTERESTAuthors declare no conflict of interest.